War!
For independence, for territory, for democracy. A close look at eight major conflicts shows how American presidents waged the battles that shaped the nation
Why: Two serious provocations: Germany's submarine attacks against U.S. merchant ships and Germany's clumsy overture to Mexico, suggesting an alliance if America entered the fray, which it did on April 6, 1917. Oxford University historian Hew Strachan says that President Woodrow Wilson also concluded that a German victory would crush his dream of a peaceful international order.
Number of soldiers: 4,734,991
Casualties: 320,518 soldiers
Cost of war: $16.8 billion. In 2002's currency: $190.6 billion
Sacrifices asked for by the president: The "Clean Plate" campaign asked citizens not to waste food so there'd be enough wheat for European Allies.
Wartime slogan/song: A war to "make the world safe for democracy,""Over There"
Public mood: Very supportive
Antiwar movement: None, but some German-Americans suffered discrimination.
Strange but significant:
Sauerkraut renamed "liberty cabbage"
How it ended: Germany and its allies surrendered, signing the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.
Lesson for today's war makers: Idealism, such as Wilson's hope for peaceful international cooperation, requires a healthy dollop of real politik. - T.K.G.
WORLD WAR II
Why: Although President Franklin D. Roosevelt saw German and Japanese aggression against their neighbors in Europe and Asia as a threat to United States security, he promised only to be the "arsenal of democracy."On Dec. 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. The United States declared war on Japan on December 8.
Number of soldiers: 16,112,566
Casualties: 1,077,245
Cost of war: $285.4 billion then, more than $2.8 trillion in 2002 currency
Sacrifices asked for by president: In October 1940, the first peacetime conscription in U.S. history began. There also was extensive rationing of food and other supplies.
Wartime slogan/song: "Goodbye, Mama (I'm Off to Yokohama),""We Can Do It!"
Public mood: Americans rallied solidly behind the "Good War."
Antiwar movement: In January 1941, mothers prayed on the steps of the U.S. Capitol protesting Bill 1776, which promised munitions to Britain without a price tag. It passed that March.
Strange but significant: Before the president's 20th "fireside chat," he asked citizens to have a map before them. There was a considerable run on maps. In fact, 2,000 maps were sold in just one day at a single store in Manhattan.
How it ended: On April 30, 1945, as the Russian Army entered Berlin, Hitler committed suicide. One week later, Germany surrendered unconditionally. On August 14, President Truman accepted Japan's surrender just days after atomic bombs were dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Lesson for today's war makers:Carry a big stick. The United States' ability to mass-produce weapons, stemming from President Roosevelt's call for a "crushing superiority of equipment," demonstrated that modern warfare can favor machinery over men. - Sarah Blake
KOREAN WAR
Why: Encouraged by the Soviet Union and China, Communist North Korea invaded democratic South Korea on June 25, 1950. President Harry Truman rallied the United Nations to send an international army.
Number of soldiers: 5,720,000
Casualties: 139,858
Cost of war: $54 billion, about $335.9 billion in 2002 currency
Sacrifices asked for by the president: Wage and price controls on big industry
Public mood: The country was largely ambivalent.
Antiwar movement:None, but McCarthyism may have inhibited potential protesters.
Strange but significant: The war helped desegregate the military, and returning black servicemen accelerated the civil rights movement.
How it ended: A July 27, 1953, cease-fire brought a status quo. The Demilitarized Zone still follows the 38th parallel.
Lesson for today's war makers: Listen to the experts. Policymakers ignored analysts' warnings that China would enter the war. - T.K.G.
VIETNAM WAR
Why: President Lyndon B. Johnson believed in the "domino theory," that if Vietnam came under the control of a Communist government, communism would spread throughout Southeast Asia.
Number of troops: 8,744,000
Casualties: 211,512
Cost of war: $111 billion then, $494.3 billion in 2002 currency
Wartime slogan/song: Make love, not war, "Give Peace a Chance,""Blowin' in the Wind"
Public mood: Antiwar sentiment was high; protesters questioned the morality of U.S. involvement. Martin Luther King Jr. railed against the disproportionately high casualty rates among black soldiers and called America the world's greatest purveyor of violence.
How it ended: The war halted on Jan. 27, 1973, with the Paris Peace Accords. The United States withdrew but continued to provide financial and military aid.
Lesson for today's war makers: There's a line about fighting with guerrillas: If the guerrillas don't lose, they win. "You can never deter an enemy who is willing to sacrifice himself on the battlefield," says Max Cleland, a former U.S. senator and Vietnam veteran. "It's what happened in Vietnam, and it is what is happening in Iraq." - Ilana Ozernoy
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