War!
For independence, for territory, for democracy. A close look at eight major conflicts shows how American presidents waged the battles that shaped the nation
CIVIL WAR
Why: By the 1850s, the issue of slavery had polarized the country along sectional lines. When Abraham Lincoln (whose newly formed Republican Party objected to slavery) won the presidential election of 1860, 11 southern states seceded from the Union and formed the Confederacy. Combat commenced on April 12, 1861.
Number of soldiers: 2,213,363 federal troops vs. 1,064,200 Confederates
Casualties: Both sides endured staggering losses: 646,392 Union; 335,524 Confederate.
Cost of war: $5.2 billion combined, the equivalent of $62 billion in 2002 currency
Wartime songs:"Yankee Doodle" (Union), "Dixie" (Confederacy), and, among blacks, "Many Thousand Gone,"whose lyrics proclaim, "No more auction block for me."
Public mood: At first, North and South enthusiastically supported what each side smugly assumed would be a quick, easy victory. As fighting became protracted, sentiment fluctuated depending on battlefield results.
Antiwar movement: The anti-Lincoln Copperhead wing of the Democratic Party advocated a negotiated end to the war. There were antidraft riots in New York City in 1863. And during the last months of the Confederacy, there were demonstrations against a government no longer able to function.
Strange but significant: Both Union and Confederate armies pioneered the use of aerial balloons for troop reconnaissance.
How it ended: On April 9, 1865, after four years of fratricidal battle, General Lee surrendered to General Grant at Virginia's Appomattox Courthouse. On April 14, John Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln.
Lesson for today's war makers:To encourage solidarity, Lincoln would "get himself to the battlefield to visit the soldiers, walk amidst their ranks, see the wounded in the hospital," says historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, author of Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln. - Diane Cole
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR
Why: In 1868, Cuban rebels started fighting for their independence from Spain. On Feb. 15, 1898, the USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 260 men on board. The United States declared war on Spain on April 19, 1898.
Number of soldiers: 306,760
Casualties: 4,108; 90 percent because of infectious diseases
Cost of war: $400 million, over $9.6 billion in 2002 currency
Sacrifices asked for by President William McKinley: He found the Army depleted by the Civil War, with only 26,000 soldiers, so he had to request 125,000 volunteers.
Wartime slogan: "Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain!"
Public mood: Supportive
Antiwar movement: Only a few minor protests
Strange but significant: Students at the Naval War College helped draft battle plans.
How it ended: On Dec. 10, 1898, the United States and Spain signed a peace treaty granting Cuba its independence, surrendering Puerto Rico and Guam to America, and allowing the United States to purchase the Philippine Islands. America paid Spain $20 million.
Lesson for today's war makers:McKinley planned in advance to withdraw as soon as the crisis was over. He accomplished this by involving Congress as often as possible. - Katy Ibsen
WORLD WAR I
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